Category Archives: Part 1

‘Reflecting on Searle’s observation at the beginning of this chapter, how would you explain the difference between the construction of social reality and the social construction of reality?’

There is a significant difference between the meaning of the two statements above and the question is best answered by viewing the former as a philosophical statement and the latter as a sociological one.

In his book ‘The construction of social reality,’ philosopher John R. Searle argues that the structure of social reality is invisible and is ‘created by us for our purposes.’ (Searle 1995:4) Searle states that the development of language in the human species allowed us to create words that represented and symbolised something. This allowed us to create, through agreement, ‘institutional facts’ such as money, nations, marriage etc. which construct an invisible social reality.(Searle 1995:2) Searle states that ‘these institutional facts are language dependent’. Formulation of words (and language) allowed for dependent and independent thought that then allowed for discussion and agreement. (Searle 1195:61-62)

These institutional facts are specific to human experience unlike ‘brute facts’ such as mountains and water, which have a physical existence and would exist regardless of whether human beings were around to experience them.

The statement ‘the social construction of reality’ is more of a sociological theory that attempts to describe how society constructs our reality. The sociologists Berger and Luckmann argue that ‘reality is socially constructed’ (1966:13) and can differ between societies. Society is created by human interaction or habitualisation. This means a frequent, repeated, meaningful activity that then becomes institutionalised. Human behaviour then becomes controlled by this social institution.(For example, the legal system). Reality becomes historical and is passed down through generations.

This socially constructed social reality is reinforced through the roles that human beings play within it. For example, we can be a mother, a teacher, a customer and they are all representative of the institutions that we have socially created. These roles are reinforced though the interaction of others within society.

These roles and institutions are an objective social reality, but society is also experienced subjectively by the individual. Primary socialisation can shape an individuals reality as humans can be born with different backgrounds depending on their place within society. So for example, a child bought up in poverty may become rebellious, resentful and suspicious of society, wheras a child brought up in a wealthy environment may have feelings of worthiness and superiority.

SUMMARY

The construction of social reality attempts to answer a philosophical question about how humans create this invisible world of objective institutional facts that allow us to function as part of a social whole. The social construction of reality is a sociological attempt to explain how society creates reality for humans with its objective roles and institutions. It is also stated that reality is a subjective experience as individuals are socialised with different identities and perspectives.

Bibliography

Berger, P. L. and Luckmann T. (1966)’The Social Construction of Reality.’ London: Penguin book

Searle, J. R (1995) ‘The Construction of Social Reality’ London: Penguin books.

Social Constructions of Reality, Lumen Introduction to Sociology At http://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/social-constructions-of-reality/ Accessed 13/11/2019

What do you understand by the phrase ‘digital art’? List the possible meanings and indicate the one that you consider most viable.

What does the term ‘digital’ mean?

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English states that digital means:

‘using a system in which information is recorded or sent out electronically in the form of numbers, usually ones and zeros.’

This method of technology allows for the representation of lots of data (information) . Examples of devices/systems that use this technology are computers, TV’s cameras and mobile phones.

Definitions of the phrase ‘digital art’?

• The Tate organisation state that ‘digital art is a term used to describe art that is made or presented using digital technology’.
• Digital artists Jon Thomson and Alison Craighead (2015) describe digital art as art that uses data as its material.
• The online Enclyclopedia.com describes digital art as ‘contemporary art in which computer technology is used in a wide variety of ways to make distinctive works..’ it can be ‘presented on video screens, be abstract or figurative… Digital art also includes works, many of them interactive, made to be used on the web.’
• Artist and curator Stephanie Przybylek describes digital art as ‘work made with digital technology or presented on technology’. (For example images created on a computer or hand drawn images that are scanned then adapted using a program such as Adobe.) …’it can also involve animation and 3D virtual sculpture renderings as well as projects that combine several technologies. Some digital art involves manipulation of video images.’ Przybylek describes this as a ‘merger between art and technology.’

So, if we take the definitions above, it becomes apparent that digital art encompasses a lot of areas. According to Digital Art Weekly ‘What is Digital Art? Definition and Scope of the New Media’ (2018), digital art is also defined as object-oriented artworks and process-oriented visuals. . In the first case digital technologies function as a tool to create traditional objects such as paintings, photographs and sculptures. In the second case, the technology is the end project. They also propose 8 different types of digital art:

1.Digital painting -via pc or tablet creating similar affects to traditional watercolour/acrylic painting.

2.Digital photography – e.g photographs, scans, satellite images.

3. Sculptures – designed through computer software. Displayed physically or virtually.

4.Digital installations – 3D, interactive, virtual and augmented reality.

5. Videos, animation and the moving image

6. Internet and networked art.

7.Software art – computational engineering

8.Mixed Media – digital creations of various outputs.

Examples of digital art

CONCLUSION

The introduction of digital technology into mainstream contemporary society has given artists the opportunity to create and experiment with it. I would argue that the most viable meaning is perhaps the simplest one given by the Tate organisation. ‘Digital art is a term used to describe art that is made or presented using digital technology’. It would seem that this definition encompasses a wide field in the art world from photography and video installations to complex computer programming to create a visual affect. I would perhaps expand upon the terms ‘made’ and ‘presented’ to explain that there is object orientated digital artworks and process orientated digital artworks – Digital technology as a tool or medium (photography, painting) and digital technology as the end project (installations).

List of Illustrations

Fig 1. Milk C. (2012) The treachery of Sanctuary (white panel frames and digitally projected shadows) [photograph] at http://milk.co/treachery#/id/i4251911

Fig 2. Koblin, A. Flight Patterns At http://www.aaronkoblin.com/work/flightpatterns/

Bibliography

Digital Art – Art term At https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/d/digital-art

https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/digital-art

Longman dictionary of contemporary English viewed at https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/digital

Przybylek, S. What is Digital Art? – Definition, History & Examples At https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-digital-art-definition-history-examples.html Accessed 13/11/2019

The British Arts council ‘What is Digital Art?’ at

ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RWop0Gln24 accessed 13/11/2019

How could a Dyson Vacuum cleaner be seen as a work of art?

This is an interesting question and gave me quite a lot to think about. I considered the Dyson vacuum cleaner as a functional household object whose design is highly unique and interesting to look at. An individual has used their imagination and creativity to make a machine that, if you did not know its function, would not look out of place in a gallery for modern sculpture. The Bauhaus movement in the early 20th century had a philosophy of combining arts and crafts to create beautiful and useful items such as chairs, tables and cabinets. They combined art and functionality. The Dyson company could be seen to have a similar philosophy. Their cleaners have a simplistic look, with limited colours. Function is visible through the parts exposed by the perspex/plastic. They have a simple style that is compact and stylised like no other vacuum cleaner. A piece of art that has been designed to be a functional part of every home.

Marcel Du Champ’s conceptual art work entitled ‘fountain'(1917), places an ordinary functional object – a urinal, and turns it on it’s side to be viewed as a piece of art. The title ‘fountain’ gives the viewer a new perspective, an opportunity to think in a different way. If the idea or concept is important when creating a piece of art, then the Dyson could also be used in this way. If it was to be seen in a gallery and out of context (perhaps in a different position) with a new title, then maybe it would serve a different purpose and become a piece of art that challenges us to see something with a new perspective. So, for example, we could give it the title ‘indoor life’ or ‘sterile living’ or ‘creating space’ (due to the vaccum). The Dyson now becomes a metaphor for the unhealthy amount of time humans spend in the indoor environment. (This is quite a poor metaphor but I couldn’t think of one as good as Du Champ’s!)

How could Tenniel’s illustrations of Alice in Wonderland be seen as works of art?

John Tenniel’s illustrations could be viewed as pieces of art. Tenniel creates characters and scenes from the story ‘Alice in Wonderland’. In this particular drawing he has created realistic characters using the skill of his creative imagination. He also uses drawing techniques such as linear perspective and tonal contrasts to create a visually interesting scene. We can compare Tenniel’s drawings to some earlier renaissance art that also illustrate a story – the bible. Although these were often fresco’s or paintings the objective was the same – to create a visual interpretation of a concept or story. Today however, we would generally use illustrations together with written text.

How could the Nazca lines be seen as a work of art?

The Nazca lines in Peru were created in the desert over 2000 years ago and still their purpose remains a mystery. Their patterns and forms are only visible from the air and range from 30- 1200 feet in length. The ‘geolyphs’ (drawings made on the ground) were man made images of animal such as snakes, lizards and birds and geometric patterns. The artists removed the top layer of earth and rocks to reveal a lighter colour. This contrast created a negative image. These images must have been planned and designed using a clever measuring technique. I would also suggest that this was made by many individuals as a ‘group project.’

I thought that the Nazca lines could be compared to other native art forms. The Aborigines used the desert sand to draw maps, retell their history and create ‘dreamtime’ stories. This would have been done with a stick or the hand to create an indent in the sand – similar to the indents of the Nazca lines. The meaning behind the Nazca lines though is unknown.

I also considered the Nazca lines as a form of earth or Land art. A deliberate alteration of the land / earth to create a desired image or picture. In the contemporary art world, Land artist Robert Smithson took his art outdoors to reconnect art with nature. ‘Spiral Jetty’ (1970) was created by the movement of earth to create a spiral pattern on the edge of a lake. This could be compared to the Nazca lines that were created in a similar way, albeit without machines.

Looking at the photograph above, the Nazca lines also look a lot like a print – a lino cut with a simple image or some kind of etching. The only difference here is the scale of the Nazca lines, which are extraordinarily large pieces of artwork, and the materials used.

List of Illustrations

Fig 1. DC49 Multi floor Dyson Vacuum Cleaner. Photograph at https://www.dezeen.com/2013/07/26/dyson-launch-smallest-vacuum-cleaner/ Accessed 13/11/2019

Fig 2. Tenniel J. (1865) Alice in Wonderland‘ [ink on paper] At https://time.com/4310913/rare-collection-of-alice-in-wonderland-books-to-go-on-sale/ Accessed 13/11/2019

Fig.3 Nazca Lines, The Condor (200 BC – 500 AD) At https://youngzine.org/news/history/nazca-lines-paintings-desert

Bibliography

Golomb, J. Nasca Lines in National Geographic online At https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/archaeology/nasca-lines (Accessed 13/11/2019)

https://uk.phaidon.com/agenda/art/articles/2013/november/18/explaining-smithsons-spiral-jetty/

Lunberry, C. (2002) ‘Quiet Catastrophe: Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty, Vanished’ in Discourse 24.2,Spring 2002 p86-120. At https://muse.jhu.edu/article/39973/summary (Accessed 09/11/2019)

Winton, A. G. (2007) The Bauhaus, 1919–1933 At https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bauh/hd_bauh.htm ( Accessed 13/11/2019)

Three works of art in which I believe theory plays a decisive role.

Three works of art in which theory seems absent.

External theoretical influences have played a decisive role in the first three paintings. Hardie has certainly created a piece of art that has been influenced by feminist theory. She is creating a more realistic, true image of how it feels to be a woman rather than how women are usually viewed/percieved. Miro was heavily influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud and his ideas about the conscious/unconscious mind. Miro allowed his unconscious mind to express itself through this painting. Deineka created Socialist Realist paintings that were based upon the social ideals of the Socialist Soviet Union. Often seen as propoganda art, they depicted optimistic views of socialist working life.

The paintings where theory seems absent do not seem to have any direct influence from external theories and appear highly experimental. According to Greenberg, these modernist paintings do not create pictures from theories but rather ‘convert all theoretical possibilities into empirical ones’. (Greenberg, 1995, 92).

Bibliography

https://www.jackson-pollock.org/

https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/joan-miro-the-birth-of-the-world/

https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/themes/surrealism/tapping-the-subconscious-automatism-and-dreams/

Saunders, Gill (1989), ‘The nude, a new perspective.’ The Herbert Press Ltd.

https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/s/socialist-realism

In his book, The Construction of Social Reality, John Searle writes ‘There are portions of the real world, objective facts in the world, that are only facts by human agreement. In a sense there are things that exist only because we believe them to exist. … things like money, property, governments, and marriages. Yet many facts regarding these things are ‘objective’ facts in the sense that they are not a matter of [our] preferences, evaluations, or moral attitudes.’ (Searle, 1995: 1)

List of 10 ‘things that exist only because we believe them to exist.’

1. Society
2. Taxation
3. Religion
4. Laws
5. Capitalism
6. Socialism
7. Community
8. Crime
9. Globalisation
10. Nation states

The items on the above list are constructed by thought and communication (through language) in humans who all agree on the facts that define them. For example, crime is agreed to be the actions of groups or individuals that break socially established laws.  Taxation is universally agreed to be the extraction/payment of a percentage of income to the government/ruler of a society. As John Searle states these things ‘exist only because we believe them to exist…’(Searle, 1995:1). Without humans these things would not exist as they have no physical element and can only be created through human thought, interaction and implementation. Searle names these facts ‘institutional facts’ as they depend on human institutions and ‘collective intentionality.’ (Searle, 1995:27)

The examples on the list differ from things such as mountains, rocks and forests. Regardless of human presence these natural, physical items would still exist. They do not require a collective agreement as to what they should be – they just exist regardless of what they are called or who sees them. Searle names these facts ‘brute facts’ that are independent of human beings. (Searle, 1995:27)

‘Yet many facts regarding these things are ‘objective’ facts in the sense that they are not a matter of (our) preferences, evaluations, or moral attitudes. (Searle, 1995, 1)

Searle describes ‘facts regarding these things’ as ‘objective’. If we look at nation states, I can say that I am a UK citizen. This is an ‘objective’ fact that I, as an individual with morals and attitudes, have no influence over. I could also state that within the Christian religion Christmas Day is always on 25th December.

Bibliography

Searle, J. R. (1995) The Social Construction of Reality’. London:Penguin books

Smith, B. and Searle J. (2003) American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 62:2 205-309 At http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/searle.pdf (Accessed 25/07/2019)